Waterson, Defending Heaven: China’s Mongol Wars 1209-1370 (May)

James Waterson

Defending Heaven: China’s Mongol Wars 1209-1370

(Frontline Books: 2013) XXXIV and 236 pp.  $31.59

Defending Heaven

Defending Heaven is James Waterson’s fourth book. Whereas the Mongols have made cameo appearances in his previous works, they take stage front and center in Defending Heaven. As with his previous works and with Frontline Book’s overall publishing, the work is intended for the educated general public. Needless to say, Waterson writes with lucidity and accessibility but with an interesting approach. He unabashedly takes the perspective of the Chinese. This is not to say the book is uncritical, but Waterson’s narrative is examined through the lens of the Song Empire. While Mongol motives and actions are considered, the focus remains on the Song court and its commanders in the field.

The book is organized into nine chapters and a brief epilogue. In addition, the front matter includes a foreword by John Man, who has written books on Chinggis Khan and Khubilai Khan for popular audiences, and an introduction. It is in his introduction that Waterson explains his decision for his approach: he simply considers the Mongols as “not a good thing” (p. xxvii). Waterson is perfectly willing to accept that others may disagree, but admits that he finds himself “writing more genially of their enemy than the khans” (p. xxvii). With his bias honestly stated, Waterson has no other agenda which permits the reader to settle in for rather pleasant discussion of the Mongol wars in China.

Although the title might give the impression that the work examines the entire conquest of China, the vast majority of the work is dedicated to the Song Empire. Chapter One, “Heaven Inverted” provides an overview of China prior to the Mongol invasions, essentially setting the scene. For someone unversed in Chinese or Mongol history, it provides an adequate and concise history of events from the Tang period to approximately 1200. The second chapter relates the destruction of Xi Xia in northwestern China and the Jin Dynasty in northern China and Manchuria. It too is concise but adequate, yet somewhat disappointing for a war that lasted over twenty years. To be fair, Waterson’s intention is to focus on the war with the Song Dynasty that last for over forty years (including pauses), but the title of the book misleads. For those who want more on the war with the Jin, Allsen’s chapter in the volume six of the Cambridge History of China will remain the most scholarly work in addition to H.D. Martin’s classic Chinggis Khan and the Conquest of North China. [1] Yet, Waterson provides an overview of the Song reaction to the events to their north and explains their motives. Although he does not provide new analysis that is not found in Allsen, Waterson’s explanations are clear and provide the context for the next chapter.

In chapter three, “All Under Heaven”, the war with the Song begins. In this chapter, Waterson sensibly covers the war from its inception by Ögödei Khan and actions that occurred under Güyük. The part on the latter is brief and justifiably so considering Güyük’s brief reign. In this chapter, he considers the politics of the Song court as well as their weaponry and the changes that occurred. Here, Waterson provides a wonderful service. Most enthusiasts of military history enjoy discussions of weaponry and no doubt have seen exotic Chinese weapons such as long sword-like spears and tridents. While menacing, one must always wonder how they would function on the battlefield. Apparently, not very well as Waterson explains the shift in the weaponry of Song infantry units to more conventional spears and pole arms. The author also considers gunpowder weapons with due diligence and not going overboard in their destructive abilities. In his discussion of the battles and strategy, Waterson examines both sides, but with the Song he does also consider political machinations that were involved. The Mongols receive less attention in this area, but considering the number of works on this topic, his brevity on Mongol motives is acceptable.

Chapter four focuses on the invasions under Möngke and Song resistance. Of particular interest is the discussion of what occurs after Möngke death in 1259 and Song actions prior to Khubilai Khan’s invasions. Chapter five through eight cover Khubilai’s conquest and provide excellent detail of the major battles as well as the difficulties in the conquest. Waterson also considers whether the wars can truly be considered between a foreign power or whether they are wars between north and south China. Waterson raises a valid question as Khubilai’s war efforts relied on the resources of northern China and relied on fewer Mongols and more Chinese infantry as well as the necessity of building that most un-Mongol entity—a navy. Of equal importance is Waterson’s detailed coverage of the Song perspective of the war and the complexity of the Song state at war. He clearly demonstrates that while the Mongols should be credited with success, the Song decisions also bear equal responsibility for the failure. At the same time, the fact that four chapters are devoted to Khubilai’s war with the Song provides added emphasis to the length of the war and that the conquest was anything but easy.

Chapter nine, the longest chapter in Defending Heaven, is an overview of the post-conquest Mongol rule. In addition to a general overview the new Yuan Empire, Waterson again emphasizes the perspective of the conquered Song. Here he examines there reluctance to participate in the Mongol Empire as well as the growing resistance to Mongol rule in the fourteenth century and the resultant Red Turban rebellions. In his conclusion, Waterson argues that the end of Mongol rule in China was tied directly to their conquest of the Song, and that if they had not conquered it, perhaps Mongol rule would have continued longer. It is an intriguing idea albeit, one that can never be answered. Still, the hypothesis is worth considering.

Waterson’s Defending Heaven is an excellent contribution not only to the study of the Mongol Empire but also to military history. Generally speaking, the Song have been portrayed as being pathetically inept in warfare but Waterson’s nuanced narrative clearly demonstrates that although the Song could not defeat the Mongols in an open battle, they more than held their own in defensive capabilities. With five maps, thirty-three illustrations, a lengthy timeline and dynastic charts, Defending Heaven is an excellent resource. The book is not without faults. There are some errors in dates and activities on the Mongols side, but nothing that alters the overall value of the Waterson’s work. Anyone interested in medieval warfare will find Defending Heaven of interest for their personal library as well as for classroom use.

Timothy May
University of North Georgia

[1] Thomas Allsen, “The rise of the Mongolian Empire and Mongolian rule in north China,” in  Herbert Franke and Denis Twitchett, ed, The Cambridge History of China, vol, 6. Alien regimes and border states, 907-1368; H.D. Martin, Chinggis Khan and His Conquest of North China (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins Press, 1950).

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