Christofer Herrmann

Der Hochmeisterpalast auf der Marienburg: Konzeption, Bau und Nutzung der modernsten europäischen Fürstenresidenz um 1400

(Michael Imhof Verlag, 2019) 600 pp. 89.00 €

Professor Christofer Herrmann (Uniwersytet Gdańsk / Technische Universität Berlin) is a leading expert on the architectural history of the Teutonic Order in Prussia (present-day Poland and Lithuania). He has published extensively on the history of castles and churches of the region, with detailed analyses of building techniques, architectural styles, and building functions, most recently evident in his earlier monograph, Mittelalterliche Architektur im Preußenland: Untersuchungen zur Frage der Kunstlandschaft und -geographie (Michael Imhof, 2007). This book is focused on a broader overview of the art historical landscape of the Teutonic Order’s Prussian lands, encompassing parish churches, castles, and cathedrals. He has also published several guides to the region of former East Prussia, the so-called Teutonic Order land (das Ordensland) [1]. In the present volume, Herrmann takes on a more singular, focused approach, namely in that he is analysing one building: the Grand Master’s Palace (der Hochmeisterpalast) at the castle of Marienburg (now Malbork, Poland). This building is just one part of the castle complex at Marienburg, which served as the residence of the Grand Masters of the Teutonic Order rom 1309 to 1457. The castle is one of the largest brick buildings of the Middle Ages, and has been recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1997.

To say that Herrmann’s monograph is a deep analysis would be an understatement. At 600 pages, spread over 15 chapters, with 638 images (including historical photographs, water color paintings, and architectural plans) and 14 tables, it is clear that he has investigated virtually every aspect of the building’s history, appearance, and architectural evolutions throughout the centuries. In doing so, Herrmann’s book gives life to this incredible example of medieval architecture of the Baltic Sea region.

Chapter 1, section 1 (19) begins with setting out the 2 main problems to be investigated: 1.) What is modernity, and how did it arrive here on the frontier of Latin Christendom? 2.) How does medieval architecture reflect sovereignty, how was interior space organized? And how was the building used by the Grand Master of the Order? Herrmann proposes to answer this question not in the style of a traditional architectural study, but in reconstructing the life of the building within the context of the person who used it. Indeed, it is a fascinating problem to explore, but one that is considerably difficult to accomplish based on the nature of the written sources available. Section 2 (19-30) is a historiographical introduction to the study of the Hochmeisterpalast, taking the reader on a journey through over 200 years of investigation beginning with the work of Friedrich Gilly (d. 1800). Herrmann then proceeds to discuss the evolution of how historians have approached the study of the building during the Romantic period. Herrmann’s analysis of the debate between Ferdinand von Quast (d. 1877) and Johannes Voigt (d. 1863) concerning the evolution and dating of the palace (24) reveal the placement of this structure at the heart of the emergence of art history as a discipline during the nineteenth century. This section then spans through to the classic eras of the restoration of the palace under Conrad Steinbrecht (d. 1923), Bernhard Schmid (d. 1947), and Karl-Heinz Clasen (d. 1979), when a more scientific approach to the study of medieval buildings was undertaken at Marienburg. A main strength of this chapter is that it also discusses the Polish historiography surrounding the Palace, an area of research that continues to remain under the radar in most investigations of the military orders and the Baltic region (outside of Germany and Poland).

Herrmann’s thoroughness of this area of research is of considerable value to those who can navigate academic German, but not Polish, and his engagement with the work of renowned scholars on the history of Malbork, namely Dr. Janusz Trupinda (Director of the Malbork Castle Museum), Prof. Sławomir Jóźwiak (Nicholas Copernicus University in Toruń), and the significant amount of historiographical and archival material from Polish research circles reflects the value of his work. Here, Herrmann acknowledges what has been seen as a weak point in his investigation: the lack of written sources concerning the function and rooms in the Hochmeisterpalast. Section 3 (30-33) outlines the methodology that Herrmann uses in his analysis of the building. Here, Herrmann engages with the criticism of his earlier studies by Sławomir Jóźwiak, who maintains that without sufficient analysis of the written material, there can be only limited further insights into the function of a building like the Hochmeisterpalast (30). Instead Herrmann seeks to attempt to gain these insights by focusing on the architecture of the building and its broader placement within the architecture of Europe in the Middle Ages. In other words, Herrmann’s book argues that there is a danger in an over-reliance on the written sources (31-32). Herrmann discusses then the nature of the architectural historian’s work in relationship to that of the traditional historian, and leaves it to the reader to decide the extent to which his focus on architecture can provide new insight into the function, use, and perception of the Hochmeisterpalast (32). The fourth and final segment of Chapter 1 (34-37) focuses on the terminology in the sources, a fundamental element for researching the architecture of the Teutonic Order in Prussia. Herrmann demonstrates this by pointing out the misidentification of rooms by earlier scholars, who referred to the ‘Great Remter’ as the ‘Convent Room’, when in fact this room was a place for public meetings and was not connected to the monastic life of the Order. This section offers an attempt to define the terms used in the medieval sources to refer to the Hochmeisterpalast: Gemach (building, story, floor, one of many rooms for living, or room), and Remter (refectory, but also referred to in the sources as aula, stuba, or estuarium). Herrmann points out that the clear definitions of these terms is essential to a successful investigation of the building, though it is clear later that he sometimes uses modern terms that have no base in the medieval sources.

Chapter 2 (41-67) then discusses the first phase of construction of the Hochmeisterpalast, which finds its origins in a structure dated to c.1290/1300, in the Outer Bailey of the castle. The chapter then moves to the first stages of construction that began under the auspice of prodigious Hochmeister, Luther von Braunschweig (d. 1335), in the years 1331-1333. It begins with a summary of previous efforts to date the structure, noting the influence of Romanticism on earlier scholars, before moving into the era of Conrad Steinbrecht, who provided the first plan for the earlier palace (44). Herrmann then proposes that this first building was established at this time, then uses dendrochronological analysis of wooden beams in the cellar of the structure to date the construction of the Great Refectory to around this time. Particularly interesting is Herrmann’s consultation of unpublished materials to examine the first stages of construction of the Hochmeisterpalast (such as the plans of Antoni Kąsinowski, drawn in the early 1960s).

Chapter 3 (69-91) moves on to the later additions to the Hochmeisterpalast that visitors to Malbork can still see today, which were carried out at the end of the fourteenth century. Herrmann argues that the building initiative for this structure was the product of Winrich von Kniprode, who headed the Order for thirty years (1352-1382). The chapter is primarily concerned with the dating of the structure, and the historical context of its architecture, and reasons for the expansion of the original building from the 1330s. This chapter does have interesting interpretations of the expansion of rooms, namely the enhancement of the chancery due to the increased number of documents issued by the Order in the late fourteenth century (88). Moreover, the external appearance of the building is connected to Winrich’s desire to express his (and the Order’s) sovereignty (90). This would make sense, considering that Winrich was Hochmeister at what has been called by scholars of the Order for some time as a ‘golden age’ (Bütezeit) of the Order’s campaigns against the Lithuanians (Preußen– or Litauerreisen), in addition to architectural, diplomatic, and administrative developments of the Ordensland.

Chapter 4 (92-117) is a study of the private chapel of the Grand Master (Hochmeisterkapelle, pictured below, Image 2), which until now has remained unstudied in significant detail (93). This chapter begins with a research overview from the nineteenth century, with the restorations of the palace carried out by Wilhelm Häbler, and as Herrmann notes, the remembrance of the chapel at this time was faded entirely (94). Architectural plans were first published in 1823, and there emerged a significant debate over methodological approaches between Johannes Voigt, representing historical and archival research, and Ferdinand von Quast, representing the newly-emerging field of art history. Their argument centred around whether or not this was the place where Grand Master Werner von Orseln (r.1324-1330) was killed by a brother as he was leaving a service. It is clear that Herrmann sides more with the approach of von Quast who, dating the building on its architectural style, determined that it was built after the Grand Master was killed in the 1330 (95). Herrmann complements his point by using the written sources and terminology to argue that it was not the monastery chapel (Kreuzgang), but a private chapel of the Grand Master (Kapelle) where the murder took place, thus pointing to an earlier, private foundation of the Grand Master where he would worship privately (99-100). From here, Herrmann moves on to one of the most prolific Grand Masters in the Order’s history from a literary perspective, Luther von Braunschweig (1331-1335), arguing that the emergence of the Grand Master’s Chapel was connected to Luther’s desire to create a sort of court (Hofstaat) at Marienburg. It was Luther’s initiative, according to Herrmann, that sparked the rise of the private chapel as an important space within the private life of the Grand Master, though he also demonstrates that distinguished guests visiting Marienburg would visit this room as well, perhaps venerating the relic collection of the Hochmeister, which was considerable.

Chapter 5 (119-212) is an analysis of the architectural and visual characteristics of the Hochmeisterpalast. It begins with an overview of the historical images of the building (namely watercolor paintings, images from early maps, plans, and historical photographs) to gauge the building’s appearance prior to its first restoration under the direction of Conrad Steinbrecht in the nineteenth century (119-137). This section is particularly notable in its consultation of archival materials from the Malbork Castle Museum (Muzeum Zamkowe w Malborku) and the Regional Archives of Malbork (Archiwum Państwowe w Malborku). The following section (138-143) examines the external appearance of the building, beginning with location, building measurements, and material construction of the Hochmeisterpalast, demonstrating the visual impact of the structure and its placement within the larger castle complex. Section 3 (144-158) then analyses the external appearance of the palace, specifically its placement within the western end of the castle complex. In this chapter, Herrmann’s strength as an art historian and his ability to discern key architectural developments in the building history shines through. Particularly notable examples are his spatial analysis of the building’s four levels and how this expressed the power of the Grand Master visually, noting the use of architectural elements such as windows and corbels in the palace in comparison to other buildings in the castle complex (148-154). Following this, Herrmann proceeds to an analysis of the internal characteristics of the Hochmeisterpalast, beginning with the Great Refectory (Große Remter) and the Master’s Kitchen (Meisters Küche) (158-163), and moving onto the fourth level of the building, which Herrmann describes as ‘the representation level’ (Repräsentationsgeschoss, 164-186). In this segment, particular attention is paid to the famous Summer and Winter Refectories (Sommerremter and Winterremter), in addition to the private quarters of the Grand Master, encompassing a total of 40 images to accompany the detailed descriptions of the various rooms (including discussions of remaining frescoes). Further attention is given to Level 3, the apartments of the Gebietiger and the lower parts of the Grand Master’s Chapel, and then proceeds to the rooms of the chancellery and cellars (200-208).

Chapter 6 (212-73), building off of the visual analysis of Chapter 5, considers the use of space within the Hochmeisterpalast. As Herrmann points out, this chapter will examine one of the main research goals of his study. The chapter rests on four foundations: Extensive building substance and spatial sequence of the palace, the large amount of written sources concerning each room’s function, parallel building types in the Ordensland (namely those of the Prussian bishops), and a significant level of planning on the part of the main architect of the building. The first function addressed is that of representative rooms (Repräsentationsräume). Here Herrmann emphasises the important functions that took place within the building (i.e. meetings and delegations of foreign visitors, guest crusaders on the Reisen, etc). Following this is a discussion of the living quarters, chancellery and kitchen / storerooms, all of which (Hermann argues) were arranged with a specific goal of spatial hierarchy by the architect of the building. Section 2 of the chapter then discusses the living comfort (Wohnkomfort) of the palace, linking the Hochmeisterpalast within the broader framework of domestic practices in fourteenth-century Europe, namely, the increased attention paid to living comfort. Herrmann’s analysis of the extensive heating apparatus of the palace deserves special mention here for its depth and illumination. Herrmann then continues to the forecourt of the palace, and its multiple entries and exits, demonstrating the rich and intricate spatial uses of the palace, from the delivery of food and drinks, to documents.

Chapter 7 (274-83) is a relatively short piece that discusses the hierarchical structure of the Hochmeisterpalast. It attempts to discern the construction program of the designer of the building itself, a very difficult feat in light of the paucity of written sources available. Herrmann analyses the architectural appearance of the palace from low to high, but also from east to west, as a means to attempt to enter the mind of the anonymous architect of the palace. While the chapter offers an interesting and detailed analysis, it has met significant criticism from scholars, in particular Sławmoir Jóźwiak [3]. Herrmann’s attention to detail, though, and his acknowledgement of the shortcomings of this approach in his own work, deserves praise here.

Wall paintings and sculpture form the topic of Chapter 8 (284-325). Here, Herrmann provides a much-needed update on the visual culture of the Teutonic Order in Prussia, particularly the function of wall paintings, many of which have not survived to the present day in other examples of the region’s medieval architecture. Herrmann begins with a discussion of the differences between the palace and the other buildings from the outside, pointing out that the Hochmeisterpalast was likely covered in white, whereas the remaining buildings of the castle were left in their brick form. Moving from here, the remaining frescoes of the palace are analysed, beginning with a fresco of the Virgin Mary (the Order’s patron saint), in the Great Refectory (292). Interesting here is Herrmann’s connection of this painting to Luther von Braunschweig, based on a manuscript of a now lost Bible commissioned by Luther in 1321, which shows almost identical imagery to that depicted in the Great Remter (Image 3). Herrmann suggests here that the wall paintings in the palace likewise reflect the hierarchical mindset of the architect, as the lower floors of the building possess only solid or abstract images (such as vines, or plants), as opposed to human figures. Moving from the wall paintings, Herrmann then examines the rich amount of sculptures that have survived from the medieval period, indicating a visual program that incorporated elements from throughout Europe (as some sculptures were made by foreign masons), one example being the scene of Adam and Eve on the capitals in the Great Refectory. Quite remarkable here is Herrmann’s connection of this scene to a sculpture of dancing fools and musicians as reflective of a didactic message (i.e. to avoid practices associated with courtly life), as opposed to older (predominantly English-language) interpretations of the Order’s campaigns as ‘worldly’ or superficially religious. Herrmann reinforces his interpretation by moving further into the courtyard, where a similar program can be deduced in the capitals on the façade of the palace itself, before demonstrating a break in this program near the end of the fourteenth century. Here, Herrmann argues for a ‘Master John’ (Meister Johann) as possible architect of the Hochmeisterpalast based on the abstract elements of the building’s sculpture and internal wall paintings.

Chapter 9 (326-387) is one of the most exciting chapters of this monograph, especially because it considers the architecture of the place of the Hochmeisterpalast within the context of secular and religious architecture in medieval Europe. Herrmann begins with acknowledging a problem that could be seen to plague the majority of his investigation: a lack of sources. The chapter begins with an overview of scholarship on the origins of the Teutonic Order’s distinct architectural style. It highlights the main theses of these investigations, which sought to place the origins in one region of Europe, ranging from France, England, Italy, and Germany all the way to Bohemia, particularly during the reign of Karl IV (330-342). It then takes the reader on a tour of the great architectural monuments of medieval Europe to contextualise the Hochemeisterpalast and its genesis. It includes comparisons within the regions of Prussia and Livonia (present-day Latvia and Estonia) and other parallels “closer to home.” These are the castles of the bishops (die Bischofsbürgen, 343-348) of Prussia and Livonia, the lordly residences of the Holy Roman Empire (346-350), residences of the kings of Bohemia (350-354), and royal residences in Poland and Hungary (354-356). Finally, Herrmann considers possible influences from France (especially Avignon and Vincennes), England (Bolton Castle, Warkworth Castle, Lincoln) (356-374). Through a solid comparison to other forms of architecture and its developments throughout medieval Europe, Herrmann is able to demonstrate that the Hochmeisterpalast was one of the most innovative and unique buildings of its time, borrowing influences particularly from the region of Bohemia but altering them significantly to create a totally unique style (375-377). To demonstrate this point, Herrmann then proceeds to analyse the impact of the Hochmeisterpalast on later forms of architecture in the Ordensland, such as the Town Hall of Marienburg (378-379), the Order’s castle of Bütow (379-382), church architecture (382), and the palace of the archbishops of Novgorod (382-385), demonstrating that while the architecture of the Hochmeisterpalast had a myriad of influences, it also served to impact subsequent architectural styles throughout Northeastern Europe.

Chapter 10 (388-417) returns to a consideration of the patron of the palace, and the architect. The first part of the chapter considers the two main patrons of the Hochmeisterpalast: Luther and Winrich (391-395). Hermann points out correctly that Luther was a known patron of the arts and literature even in his own time. Nicolaus von Jeroschin, who translated a Latin chronicle of Prussia into Middle High German in the 1330s, states that Luther composed a poem of the story of St Barbara, in addition to participating in chanting the office of the mass. Luther was responsible for the construction of another important monument of the Order in Prussia: the cathedral of Königsberg (present-day Kaliningrad), in 1331 (391-394). His tomb was there until the destruction of the cathedral in 1944. Herrmann proposes that von Kniprode, who reigned as Hochmeister for 30 years. Near the end of this term, he decided to expand the palace to suit the needs of the Order at this time, which was experiencing a highpoint in international diplomacy and internal administration of its territories. For example, it was Winrich who decreed that every house of the Order was to take an inventory when the offices were handed over. The proceeding section meditates on the master builders of the palace. Beginning with an analysis of written terms present in sources such as the Marienburger Treßlerbuch (The book of the Treasurer of Marienburg from 1399-1409), Herrmann outlines the function of the master builder (der Baumeister), which Hermann takes as synonymous to the terms used in the sources (magister murorum, magister operis, 395-397). Here, though, it is tenuous as Herrmann states directly that he is taking these terms as synonymous to one another (396). Herrmann then moves to the figure of Master Johann, proposing that he is the best candidate for identifying this previously unknown figure (395-414). Herrmann uses parallels in Estonia as well, namely Arensburg (present-day Kuresaare, Estonia, Image 2 below), to argue that Master Johann was a well-known (and well-used) architect and known to the Teutonic Order. Based on an entry from 1397 in the so-called Marienburger Konventsbuch, published in 1920, which refers to a painter, named Master Johann, Hermann proposes that this man was not only a painter (Maler; moler), but also an architect, for he ordered stone from Gotland as well. Herrmann then proceeds to a very theoretical, though fascinating, attempt at identifying Master Johann and confirming his association with the Hochmeisterpalast (398-409). While this has received significant criticism from Jóźwiak, this is natural due to different methodological approaches. Herrmann also states that it is possible that Master Johann came from the region of Bohemia, thus supporting the scholarly claims of Bohemian influences on the castle designs of the Order (410-411). This chapter concludes with an analysis of the many stone masons’ symbols which remain in the Hochmeisterpalast, the largest concentration of such symbols in the former Ordensland (412-415). Here is offered a fascinating use of symbols to connect the masons of the palace with Bohemia, demonstrated in image 533 (415), which shows the symbols present in the Cathedral of Prague which are also present in the Sommerremter of the Hochmeisterpalast.

Chapter 11 (418-55) moves on to the inhabitants and visitors of the palace, analysing the use of the building by foreign dignitaries, the court (Kompan) of the Grand Master, and guests. Herrmann uses a variety of sources to reconstruct the events that took place within the building, from diplomatic duties and the production of documents, and the sorts of people who formed the Grand Master’s court. Herrmann counts between 100 and 125 members of this group and reconstructs their activities based on extensive sources such as inventories and other documents from the period around 1400. The following segment then proceeds to examine the visitors of the Hochmeisterpalast: foreign nobility, envoys, heralds, and other officials of the Orders. Here Herrmann provides deeper insight into the use of the castle by ‘guests’ on the Preußenreisen, an area of research that has proved elusive in previous studies due to source limitations, though Herrmann demonstrates that some of these crusaders did make visits to Marienburg and participate in meals, church services, and musical performances in the company of the Grand Master. Messengers and diplomats are more-frequently documented in the material, and here Herrmann has done a superb job in reconstructing their visits and use of the palace, and the same can be said for his analysis of heralds. The final group considered here are the servants and subjects of the Order, who are rarely mentioned in the written material. Herrmann, however, does demonstrate that this group did visit the palace, particularly in his use of an example from Maundy Thursday, when the Grand Master washed the feet of 13 poor people in the palace.

Representations of power, politics, administration and daily life of the Hochmeister form the topic of Chapter 12 (456-97). Here, Herrmann moves further into reconstructing the daily life of the man who lived within the palace, and his use of source materials is impressive, to say the least. Herrmann uses the sources available for Prussia in combination with spatial analysis techniques, and contemporary examples from throughout western Europe to attempt his reconstruction (459). Here, the inventories of the Ordensland are used with particular skill, in addition to the edited collections of the Ständetage (estate’s councils) of the fifteenth century, to reconstruct the various elements of daily life in the palace. Herrmann then moves into the function of the palace as a space for gatherings, proceedings, and meetings (459-474). These range from the General Chapter Meetings, Lesser Chapter Meetings of the Order, Ständetage and Städtetage (estate councils of the Prussian cities and towns), in addition to other meetings. Here, Herrmann provides useful context to the significance of these meetings before proceeding to analysing how the space of the Hochmeisterpalast was utilised, highlighting the course of the meetings and the importance of meals within the palace, in addition to the use of the Sommer– and Winterremter as the place in which meetings were held. Section 2 moves on to communal meals, held in the Great Refectory, two times daily for all court members. Herrmann here connects the communal meals in the palace to other examples from medieval Europe, as a way in which the Hochmeister expressed his power and control, in addition to how these gatherings strengthened the communal bond of his court members and the Order.

Chapter 13 (498-521) concerns the Hochmeisterpalst within the context of European Courtly-Chivalric culture (Höfisch-Ritterliche Kultur). For some time, the Order’s crusades in Prussia (particularly in the fourteenth century), have been studied within the framework of courtly culture, and with good reason: nobles from throughout the Continent travelled to Prussia to participate in the Reisen, and they brought with them the popular practices associated with knighthood. This is perhaps best demonstrated in the Table of Honor (Ehrentisch; mensa honoris), where knights would gather and be recognized for their feats in battle. This table was under the administration of the Order, thus solidifying the thin line between monastic military order and chivalric institution [2]. Herrmann challenges this narrative by comparing the elements common to such culture and their representation in the palace of the Grand Master. Chapter 13 begins with a brief overview on previous scholarly approaches to the phenomenon of courtly culture from the nineteenth century to the present (501). Section 2 considers the ceremonial functions of courtly culture in the middle ages (501-502), laying out the key elements of courtly culture which were common throughout Europe. These were an ideal of society (Gesellschaftsideal), courtly behavior (Höfisches Benehmen), symbols of status (Statussymbole), courtly food and drink culture (Ess- und Trinkkultur), entertainment (Vergnügungen) and courtly literature (Höfisches Literatur). Herrmann then proceeds to section 3, which analyses the presence (or, rather, the lack thereof) within the palace of the Hochmeister. Herrmann points out immediately that there is no possible avenue to examine any type of courtly ceremony in the palace, thus concluding that this was not a significant element of daily life in the palace, even when the Hochmeister received guests. Here, Herrmann also takes to analysing the visual elements of the palace to demonstrate that, contrary to older interpretations of the Order, the visual program of the palace’s interior speaks to an attempt on the part of the Grand Master to distance himself from this practice. Indeed, Herrmann likewise acknowledges that the elements of courtly culture that were present in the Hochmeisterpalast were significantly altered in their presentation to the brethren of the Order (505-506). Herrmann also provides a survey of all known reports of visitors to the palace throughout the fourteenth and fifteenth century (511-513), revealing how they focus on the monumentality of the building, and honor of the brothers and master, but do not highlight any courtly characteristics of the building itself. It is, therefore, argued that the absence of such elements, particularly that of luxury (Pracht; splendor) within the palace complex, such as those evidenced in the themes on column capitals, and wall paintings of the Grand Masters, reflect a parallel to the austerity of the Cistercians in their desire to separate themselves from the worldliness of courts and kings. Through a comprehensive analysis of the themes present in the Hochmeisterpalast and their connection to the self-image of the Teutonic Order and its corporate identity (515-518), Herrmann succeeds in questioning older narratives concerning the expeditions to Prussia headed by the Teutonic Order, some of which can still be found in scholarship today.

Chapter 14 (522-29) is the final chapter of this monograph and considers the elements of “modernity” in the Hochmeisterpalast. Herrmann connects the rise of this modernity to fit the needs of the patron, in this case, the Hochmeister and his court. Herrmann also points out that this only could have been possible due to the close relationship between the patron and the architect, who was allowed to have considerable creative freedom in his design of the building. This chapter begins with an analysis of the room structures, dividing them into living comfort, living space, and representative space, noting differences between the Hochmeisterpalast to other examples of royal residences throughout Europe. In this case, the room organization is contrasted with that of French palaces, such as Vincennes, and more reflective of trends in Central Europe (524-525), evident in the presence of the ‘study’ (Studierstbe). Such parallels were also present at the Order’s castle of Lochstedt (Pawlowo, Kaliningrad oblast). Herrmann also points out parallels to other castles with similar spatial arrangements (i.e. a complex system of hallways linking separate rooms, depicted on 525, image 559), such as the Albrechstburg in Meissen, which postdates the Hochmeisterpalast by nearly a century. The final part of the chapter (528-529) reflects on the concept of modernity within the Hochmeisterpalast, noting that the use of such a term is in fact problematic, since the architect of the palace in the fourteenth and fifteenth century would not have had our modern definition of ‘modernity’ in mind (528). However, it is clear, according to Herrmann, that the architect of the Hochmeisterpalast clearly broke with established tradition and conventions, particularly evident in the abstract sculptural elements and the lack of images in the interior of the castle, speaking to the austerity that the Master wished to project (529). Herrmann concludes that the elements of the Hochmeisterpalast speak to the incredible individuality of the architect and the expression of that individuality, in this sense, reflecting characteristics associated with ‘modernity’ (529).

Chapter 15 (530-33) is a summary (Resümee) of the findings of this research project. It highlights in bold main elements from each chapter, from the dating of the structure, to the historical context and reconstructions of the spatial system. This is written very concisely and hits on the key points that Herrmann wished to highlight in this book.

Following Chapter 15 is an Appendix of dendrochronological data, analysed by Alexander Konieczny (Toruń) (534-600). The analysis specifically focuses on the ceiling beams (Balkendecken) and roof beams (Dachwerke), providing more solidified dates for the construction of the palace. It is composed of 18 tables of data, with bold data pointing to the dates of the felling of the trees which were used in the construction of the ceiling and roof. There is also a further section of commentary on these data, which proves extremely helpful to the reader not familiar with dendro-dating methods. Leading from this is a series of photographs, many from archives in Poland and Germany (Archivum Państwowe w Malborku, Muzeum Zamkowe w Malborku, and the Geheimes Staatsarchiv Preußischer Kulturbesitz, 548-553). The amount of material and quality of the photographs complement the dendrochronological data very nicely.

Herrmann’s book is a monumental work that combines historical text-based analysis with the methodology of the art historian. In doing so, he gives life to the building itself. Clearly, there are places where this approach has significant advantages, particularly evident in chapters 4, 5, and 13. Moreover, its erudition in terms of how it sets out the historiography of the last two centuries is something that deserves considerable praise, and is one of the strongpoints of this monograph. The depth of scholarly insight and knowledge of the historiography of the Teutonic Order’s architecture in Prussia is almost encyclopedia-like in its erudition and scrutiny, encompassing not just German research literature, but also Polish works. However, one shortcoming of the book is that it sometimes relies too much on information that cannot be gathered from the evidence available. This is particularly the case with respect to the identification and support of Meister Johann as the architect of the palace, and his patronage by Winrich von Kniprode. While it is certainly a possibility that this is the case, the argument set forth in the book might be construed as too reliant on what the author wants to see in the material. Given the severe difficulty of the sources and their availability, it is a difficult task to try and discern the motivations and goals of the architect of the Hochmeisterpalast, though Herrmann’s attempt is laudable. However, this is outweighed, in the opinion of the reviewer, by the incredible contribution that Herrmann’s book brings to the analysis of visual culture and artistic themes present in the Hochmeisterpalast and the castle complex as a whole. The most-recent restoration works have only been completed as of 2016, thus demonstrating the considerable amount of material that Herrmann’s book has made available.

Der Hochmeisterpalast auf der Marienburg is particularly important for scholarship on the crusades and the military orders today, which is seeing an increased interest in the Baltic region during the age of the crusades, particularly the collections of studies produced by the Nicholas Copernicus University in Toruń, Alan V. Murray, Torben Kjersgaard Nielsen and Iben Fonnesberg-Schmidt [4]. As this work continues to be produced, older assumptions that have remained about the spread of the crusading idea to the northeastern frontier of Europe are being questioned, and re-evaluated. This book’s focus, in my opinion, complements this research and provides a comprehensive, yet easy-to-use guide for an advanced audience of medievalists and graduate students. The specific audience would be the researcher who seeks to complement their work with studies in material culture. The book’s structure is simple, particularly evident with the summaries at the beginning of each chapter. Moreover, and perhaps most valuable to non-specialists, Herrmann offers an appendix of English and Polish chapter summaries at the end of the book (however, a summary for Chapter 5 is missing from this). This is to be applauded, as it helps to open up the study of this castle to researchers (or students of the military orders) who may not navigate scholarly texts in those languages. Moreover, the quality and number of the images, both taken by Herrmann and those collected from his extensive archival research, reveals the significant amount of material available for consultation in the former Ordensland. While sometimes an area that remains mostly overlooked by scholars outside of Poland, Germany, and Eastern Europe, this book is a positive step in remedying this problem by providing a systematic analysis of the visual culture of the region and a well-rounded introduction to this culture. It is the opinion of the reviewer that Christofer Herrmann’s book, while controversial in some aspects, is a superb contribution to the history of the Teutonic Order through the lens of one of its most memorable legacies: its art and architecture.

Greg Leighton, MA, PhD
Contributing Project Team Member, Steinskulptur in Preußen
Muzeum Zamkowe w Malborku (Malbork, Poland)
Editorial Board Member,
Ordines Militares. Colloquia Torunensia Historica. Yearbook for the Study of the Military Orders.

Notes
[1]: Previously, though present in some recent English-language works, this was called the Teutonic Order State (der Ordensstaat). The correct term is generally agreed to be das Ordensland or das Ordensgebiet as this reflects more accurately the complex phenomenon of the Teutonic Order’s Prussian region, as opposed to applying the modern notion of ‘State’ to it. One should consult the recent monograph of Aleksander Pluskowski, Environment, Colonization, and the Baltic Crusader States. Terra Sacra 1 (Brepols, 2019), 4-7, for a recent summary of terminology used to refer to the Teutonic Order’s Prussian territories.

[2]: The most comprehensive summary of this phenomenon, which embodied both the military and non-military elements of the crusades against the Lithuanians (1283-1412) is Werner Paravicini, Die Preußenreisen des europäischen Adels 1, Beihefte der Francia 1, (Jan Thorbecke, 1989), 316-343.

[3]: Sławomir Jóźwiak, “Uwagi w kontekście najnowszych badań nad malborską siedzibą wielkich mistrzów w średniowieczu Na marginesie pracy Christofera Herrmanna” (Remarks on the context of the latest research on the palace of the great masters in Malbork in the Middle Ages. On the margins of Christopher Herrmann’s work), Zapiski Historyczne 84, no. 2 (2019): 254/448 – 274/468. Also see Sławomir Jóźwiak and Janusz Trupinda, Organizacja życia na zamku krzyżackim w Malborku w czasach wielkich mistrzów (1309–1457) (Organisation of Life at Malbork Castle in the Time of the Grand Masters, 1309-1457) (Muzeum Zamkowe w Malborku, 2011); Eidem, Krzyżackie Zamki Komturskie w Prusach. Topografia i układ przestrzenny nad podstawie średniowiecznych źródeł pisanych (Commandery Castles of the Teutonic Order in Prussia. Topography and spatial arrangement based on the evidence of medieval written sources) (Wydawnictwo Naukowe Uniwersytetu Mikołaja Kopernika, 2012).

[4]: Listed in order: Sacred Space in the State of the Teutonic Order in Prussia, ed. by Jarosław Wenta and Magdalena Kopczyńska, Sacra Bella Septentrionalia 2 (Toruń: Wydawnictwo Naukowe Uniwersytetu Mikołaja Kopernika, 2013); The North-Eastern Frontiers of Medieval Europe: The Expansion of Latin Christendom in the Baltic Lands, ed. by Alan V. Murray, The Expansion of Latin Europe, 1000-1500 4 (Ashgate Variorum, 2014); The Teutonic Order in Prussia and Livonia. The Political and Ecclesiastical Structures, ed. by Roman Czaja and Andrzej Radzymiński (Towarysztwo Naukowe w Toruniu, 2015); and Crusading on the Edge: Ideas and Pracice of Crusading in Iberia and the Baltic Region, 1100-1500, ed. by Torben Kjersgaard Nielsen and Iben Fonnesberg-Schmidt (Brepols, 2016). This list is by no means exhaustive and does not include article-length studies in journals.

Images:

Figure 1. Marienburg / Malbork from the West. The Hochmeisiterpalast can be seen on the left. Photograph taken by Greg Leighton.

Figure 2. Hochmeisterkapelle, Malbork. Photograph taken by Greg Leighton.

Figure 3. Coronation of the Virgin, in the Great Refectory of Malbork. Photograph taken by Greg Leighton. The Bible associated with Luther is housed in Kraków, Archiwum Kapituły Metropololitanej Krakowskej, Nr. 63/10.

Figure 4. Arensburg / Kuresaare. Palace of the Bishops of Ösel / Saaremaa, Estonia. Photograph taken by Greg Leighton.