Michael P. Warner

The Agincourt Campaign of 1415: The Retinues of the Dukes of Clarence and Gloucester

(Boydell & Brewer, 2021), 258pp. $115

The last number of years have witnessed a growing interest in the conflict commonly known as the Hundred Years War. Boydell and Brewer’s excellent series ‘Warfare in History’ has been at the forefront of this historiographical development. The series has recently published several exciting works on the conflict including Nicholas Grisbit’s Henry of Lancaster’s Expedition to Aquitaine, 1345-46 (2016), Iain MacInnes’ Scotland’s Second War of Independence, 1332-1357 (2016), and Mollie Madden’s The Black Prince and the Grande Chevauchée of 1355 (2018) to name but a handful of titles. Boydell and Brewer have also been active in publishing primary sources pertaining to the conflict. 2022 witnessed the publication of A Soldier’s Chronicle of the Hundred Years War: College of Arms Manuscript M9, edited by Anne Curry and Rémy Ambühl. This was an important edition shedding new light on some of the key developments taking place during the years 1415-29. It is within this bustling scholarly context that Michael Warner’s very welcome book has been published.

Warner’s study deals with English military recruitment in the lead up to and during the Lancastrian campaign of 1415, encompassing the siege of Harfleur, the fateful battle of Agincourt, and its aftermath. It focuses on the retinues of the brothers of Henry V (d.1422): Thomas (d.1421), Duke of Clarence, and Humphrey (d.1447), Duke of Gloucester. The brothers are noted for raising two of the largest retinues for Henry V’s French campaign: Thomas raised approximately 900 men, while Humphrey brought 800 troops with him. Collectively, the brothers provided about 15% of Henry’s 12,000-strong army that served in France in 1415. Uniquely, the majority of these soldiers’ names (in Thomas and Humphrey’s retinues) are known thanks to the fact that the muster rolls for this campaign survive relatively intact. As a case study, this book is an excellent opportunity to probe the lives of these ordinary men in more detail. Warner combines these muster rolls with other pertinent primary sources including the records of the English chancery and exchequer, as well letters, chronicles, and manorial records to consider this theme in forensic detail. The introduction provides a succinct overview of recent scholarship on military recruitment in the Hundred Years War (and later medieval England more generally) and underlines the book’s indebtedness to the pioneering methodologies of Andrew Ayton and Anne Curry. Warner has two key strands of historical enquiry running through this study. The first of these deals with the issue of social cohesion within the retinues. Warner seeks to ascertain what kind of relationships existed between the soldiers before embarking for France and to what extent were these bonds were shaped by their relationships to their respective captains and military superiors. The second strand deals with the issue of experience and how both retinues fared during the campaign. The study aims to trace how the composition of the retinues changed over the campaign and pays close attention to the issue of attrition rates in both retinues. This is a novel comparative approach (made possible by the abundance of primary sources) and holds the potential to shed new light on the experience of English armies in France during the Hundred Years War. Building on both of these themes Warner also seeks to determine, where evidence allows for it, what motivated these soldiers to join these retinues and serve overseas. Was it pecuniary gain? A sense of adventure? Or, indeed, a desire to serve under a distinguished captain such as Clarence?

Chapter one introduces the reader to the changing dynamics of military recruitment during the fourteenth and early fifteenth centuries. It discusses the role of indentures and captains before outlining the evolving composition of English armies in the later Middle Ages. The chapter then moves on to consider the personal background of the dukes. Thomas was a proven soldier (he was a veteran of several campaigns in France and was very nearly killed in action Ireland in 1408) and also held lands across the kingdom of England. Thomas’ military status, coupled with his extensive estates, meant that he had a well-established network to drawn upon. This is reflected in the composition of his retinue: many of his troops were drawn from the Midlands and north of England where Thomas held considerable estates and at least a quarter of his men had served under him previously. Humphrey, by comparison, was less experienced and lacked the recruitment network enjoyed by his brother. The younger duke seems to have greater difficulties in drawing men to his service, though he appears to have recruited troops from south-east England, reflecting his status as a land-owner there. Chapter two deals with the creation of muster rolls while the army of Henry V was gathering at Southampton in the summer of 1415. This is an incredibly detailed and assured piece of scholarship and Warner demonstrates the utility of these sources for studying military recruitment in the early fifteenth century. Unlike other early English campaigns, the war of 1415 is particularly well-served with muster rolls. The chapter traces the creation and composition of these sources in forensic detail and the chapter goes far beyond a simple outline of those listed in the rolls: Warner pays close attention to the various factors shaping the creations of these texts including format and layout, clerical and scribal influence, membrane crossover and textual history, and how new information may have been added to these musters as the recruitment process gathered momentum. This approach offers a new methodological template for future researchers.

The third chapter ties in thematically with chapter two and examines the personal sub-retinues of Clarence and Gloucester. Clarence’s personal retinue comprised 147 men, making up about 15% of his entire force. Gloucester, on the other hand, had a retinue of 121 soldiers, accounting for 16% of his army. The chapter investigates the composition of these retinues and Warner painstakingly reconstructs (where possible) the personal histories of the men serving. For example, of the eighteen men-at-arms that served under Clarence, five had previous military experience. One in particular, Hugh Curteys, had served in English armies since at least 1383. At times it can be very difficult to reconstruct a full (or even partial) picture of the lives of these men. This is especially true of those lower down the social ladder such as the archers. However, a clear picture emerges that previous military service was an important factor in both recruiting soldiers and fostering a sense of comradeship. Chapter four examines the role of sub-captains in recruiting soldiers for the dukes. The demands of raising soldiers often meant that the dukes had to look beyond their own affinities and recruit troops from other sources. Warner underlines the importance of a sub-captain’s status in this regard, i.e., the greater a sub-captain’s fame, the easier it was for them to entice men into their service. Clarence’s retinue stands in stark contrast to Gloucester’s in this regard. Whereas Clarence’s previous military experience (and his position as the elder of the two brothers) had allowed him to recruit a network of sub-captains and similar recruitment contacts, the un-blooded and relatively inexperienced Gloucester had no such luxury and was, in effect, forced to build his retinue from scratch. Furthermore, the case of Gloucester sheds important light on the changing patterns of recruitment in later medieval England and how it was possible to recruit forces without having to rely on previous military experience or an established network.

The fifth chapter follows the retinues to France in the summer of 1415 and examines the impacts of the siege of Harfleur and the battle of Agincourt on the dukes’ forces. The chapter not only offers a fascinating discussion of siege warfare, it also traces how disease and fighting in such difficult circumstances contributed to attrition rates. Warner argues that despite suffering these casualties (and losing many of the sub-captains), the retinues of both dukes remained largely cohesive and were more than capable of marching on to fight at Agincourt (although Clarence was unable to participate in the battle due to illness). Chapter six examines the aftermath of the Agincourt campaign. It focuses on the social impact of 1415 and how this military experience strengthened old bonds and forged new ones between the dukes, their captains, and their men. Importantly, the operations of 1415 enhanced the status of both dukes, saw them increase their affinities, and grow their recruitment networks. Clarence and Gloucester subsequently became heavily involved in their brother Henry’s conquest of Normandy. About a quarter of the sub-captains who fought under Clarence continued to serve him in the years after Agincourt while nearly half of the original cadre remained in English service more generally. Many of these sub-captains served alongside Clarence until his death at Baugé in 1421. The campaign of 1415 had a similar impact on Gloucester’s career. He gained vital military experience but, owing to the longevity of his career, many of the sub-captains went on to achieve administrative posts in English-held France in the longer term.

Overall, this is a hugely impressive study and a very important contribution to scholarship on the Hundred Years War. However, the book should also attract a much wider readership. Warner’s treatment of this source material and approach to military recruitment will be highly instructive of other scholars setting out on similar research topics and could be applied to various aspects of later medieval and indeed early modern England.

Simon Egan
Queen’s University Belfast